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Hand-drawn cells wait in a crowded mitosis room with a blocked exit, illustrating how mitotic arrest can increase the mitotic index without faster completed division.

Interpreting Cell-Cycle Experiments: Data and Worked Examples

A cell-cycle experiment may give you a table of phase counts, a DNA-content histogram, or a record of protein abundance over time. These measurements answer different questions. Use phase counts to estimate how cells are distributed, DNA content to identify replication status, and additional observa

Colored-pencil comic compares an animal cell pinching inward with a plant cell building a cell plate outward from the center during cytokinesis.

Mitosis and Cell-Cycle Data: Chromosome Counts and Examples

A cell about to divide has a distribution problem that is easy to underestimate. A typical diploid human cell begins with 46 chromosomes and roughly two meters of nuclear DNA. After S phase, it has twice that DNA length, organized into 46 replicated chromosomes. Two identical sets have to end up in

An orange cyclin docks with a turquoise Cdk enzyme that transfers a phosphate to a target; charts contrast steady Cdk protein with rising and falling cyclin levels.

Cyclins and CDKs: How They Control the Cell Cycle

A cell pauses while tiny repair-protein mechanics mend damaged DNA, illustrating checkpoint arrest before the next cell-cycle step.

Cell Cycle Checkpoints: G1, G2 and Spindle Control

Ballpoint comic shows a receptor triggering a branching phosphorylation relay and a phosphatase removing a phosphate from a target to help reset signaling.

Signal Transduction Cascades: Amplification and Control

Three hand-inked panels show an outside ligand binding a surface receptor, an intracellular relay, and a changed enzyme activity response.

Cell Signaling: Reception, Transduction and Response

Handmade comic contrasts C4 carbon capture in different cells with CAM capture at night and use by day, showing open nighttime and closed daytime stomata.

Photorespiration, C4 and CAM Photosynthesis Explained

A leaf biochemist shows five G3P packages returning to regenerate RuBP and one net G3P exported per three carbon dioxide fixed, with ATP and NADPH inputs.

The Calvin Cycle Explained: Phases, ATP and G3P

A comic electron follows two light-powered boosts, photosystem II then photosystem I, with proton pumping between them and an NADPH endpoint.

Photosynthetic Light Reactions: ATP, NADPH and Oxygen

Hand-drawn fermentation comic: NADH delivers electrons to pyruvate, making lactate, while regenerated NAD+ returns to glycolysis, where ATP is made.

Fermentation and NAD+ Recycling: How Glycolysis Continues

Crayon comic of mitochondrial electron transport pumping H+ into the intermembrane space and proton return through ATP synthase producing ATP in the matrix.

Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: How ATP Forms

Handmade paper-theater comic showing pyruvate oxidation, acetyl-CoA entering the Krebs cycle, carbon dioxide release, acceptor regeneration and loaded electron carriers.

Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs Cycle: Carbon and ATP Counts