Going public works indirectly. The message must reach citizens, change their priorities or opinions, and then alter the incentives of officials whose cooperation is needed. Parties, interest groups, journalists, and opposing leaders can answer immediately. Public appeals may mobilize supporters, but they can also harden partisan identities or make compromise more costly by turning a negotiation into a public test of loyalty.

Imagine a president gives repeated national speeches supporting a voting bill. News coverage increases and supporters contact senators, yet several pivotal senators represent states where the president is unpopular. The bully pulpit succeeded in attracting attention but failed to produce the necessary votes. Attention, persuasion, congressional action, and policy implementation are four different outcomes.

Compare public appeals with bargaining. A speech seeks leverage through public reaction; a private negotiation offers information, concessions, access, or a credible veto threat. Both are informal strategies, although bargaining may draw strength from formal tools. Measure the strategy by changed agendas, preferences, votes, or implementation-not by the number of appearances.

Video lesson: Presidential Power: Crash Course Government and Politics #11