CLEP Introductory Psychology Quick Review

Modern psychology is not one theory but a set of contemporary perspectives --- biological, cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic, evolutionary, and sociocultural --- that each ask a different question about the same behavior.

Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory (Leipzig, 1879), making him the father of experimental psychology. Structuralism (Edward Titchener, introspection: what are the basic elements of the mind?) vs.\ functionalism (William James, influenced by Darwin: why does the mind work this way, what is its adaptive purpose?). William James wrote Principles of Psychology. The biopsychosocial model integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis and is the dominant modern lens.

Structuralism (breaks the mind into its basic elements via introspection) vs.\ functionalism (asks what adaptive purpose a mental process serves).

Students default to ``psychoanalytic'' as the explanation for every scenario because it is the most familiar name; the exam rewards identifying the perspective that fits the SPECIFIC evidence given (a question about neurotransmitters is biological, not psychodynamic).

Wundt 1879 Leipzig $arrow$ structuralism (parts, Titchener) vs.\ functionalism (purpose, James) $arrow$ biopsychosocial = modern default lens.

Only a true experiment with random assignment can establish cause and effect; every other method --- correlational, case study, naturalistic observation, survey --- can only describe or predict a relationship.

Independent variable (manipulated) vs.\ dependent variable (measured); operational definitions turn abstract concepts into measurable variables. Random assignment controls for confounding variables and is what permits causal claims; random sampling affects generalizability, not causality. A confounding variable is an uncontrolled variable that varies systematically with the IV. Placebo effects and experimenter bias are controlled with single-blind/double-blind procedures. Case studies give rich detail on one subject but do not generalize; naturalistic observation records behavior in its natural setting without manipulation.

Random SAMPLING (who gets chosen to be in the study --- affects generalizability) vs.\ random ASSIGNMENT (who gets put in which group --- affects internal validity/causality).

Students see a correlational study and still conclude ``this proves X causes Y''; any design without random assignment can only support an association, never a causal claim, no matter how strong the correlation.

Manipulate IV $arrow$ random ASSIGNMENT $arrow$ causation; random SAMPLING $arrow$ generalization only.

Ethical research protects participants' welfare while still allowing valuable science to be conducted, balancing scientific value against risk of harm.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) approve research with human participants. Required elements: informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, the right to withdraw at any time, and debriefing (full disclosure of the study's true purpose afterward, required especially when deception was used). Animal research requires a justified scientific purpose and humane treatment. The APA's ethics code governs all of this.

Confidentiality (identity is known but kept private) vs.\ anonymity (no identifying information is collected at all).

Students think deception is always unethical; deception is permitted when scientifically justified, minimal, and followed by debriefing --- the exam tests that debriefing is the required safeguard, not that deception itself is banned.

IRB approves $arrow$ informed consent $arrow$ (deception only if justified) $arrow$ debrief.

Good scientific thinking requires actively resisting the mental shortcuts that make research findings feel more obvious, certain, or confirmatory than they actually are.

Hindsight bias (``I knew it all along'') makes findings seem predictable after the fact. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek and favor information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring disconfirming evidence. Overconfidence is overestimating the accuracy of one's own judgments. Peer review is the process by which other experts evaluate a study before publication to catch these errors. Pseudoscience (e.g., astrology, phrenology) mimics the language of science without using the scientific method.

Hindsight bias (distorts judgment about the PAST, after the outcome is known) vs.\ confirmation bias (distorts what evidence you SEEK OUT going forward).

Students assume a claim is scientific because it sounds technical; the exam tests whether a claim is falsifiable and empirically tested, not how authoritative it sounds.

Hindsight = ``knew it all along'' (past); confirmation bias = seeks supporting evidence (future); peer review = the check on both.

Neurons communicate through an all-or-none electrical signal within the cell and a chemical signal (neurotransmitter release) across the synaptic gap to the next cell.

Dendrites receive signals, the soma integrates them, the axon (often myelinated for speed) conducts the action potential, and terminal buttons release neurotransmitters into the synapse. Resting potential is roughly $-70$mV. Depolarization triggers an action potential only once threshold is reached (all-or-none law --- intensity is coded by firing RATE, not signal size). Key neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (muscle movement, memory --- undersupply linked to Alzheimer's), dopamine (reward, movement --- oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply to Parkinson's), serotonin (mood, sleep, hunger --- undersupply linked to depression), norepinephrine (arousal), GABA (major inhibitory transmitter), glutamate (major excitatory transmitter), endorphins (natural pain relief). Agonists mimic/enhance a neurotransmitter's effect; antagonists block it. Reuptake is the sending neuron's reabsorption of excess neurotransmitter.

Agonist (increases/mimics a neurotransmitter's action) vs.\ antagonist (blocks/decreases it) --- e.g., an SSRI blocks serotonin reuptake, acting as a serotonin agonist overall.

Students think a stronger stimulus produces a bigger action potential; action potentials are all-or-none (same size every time) --- a stronger stimulus increases firing FREQUENCY, not amplitude.

Resting $-70$mV $arrow$ threshold $arrow$ all-or-none fire $arrow$ neurotransmitter released $arrow$ reuptake ends it.

The nervous system is organized hierarchically so the brain and spinal cord (central) can process information gathered and delivered by nerves throughout the body (peripheral).

CNS = brain + spinal cord; PNS = everything else, split into the somatic nervous system (voluntary, skeletal muscle) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary, internal organs). The autonomic system splits into sympathetic (arousing, ``fight-or-flight'') and parasympathetic (calming, ``rest-and-digest'') divisions. The spinal cord also governs simple reflex arcs without direct brain involvement.

Sympathetic (arouses, speeds heart rate, dilates pupils) vs.\ parasympathetic (calms, slows heart rate) --- both are always active to some degree, not an on/off switch.

Students assume a stress scenario is only sympathetic; the exam often tests parasympathetic rebound (calming down afterward) as an equally testable concept.

CNS = brain+cord; PNS = somatic (voluntary) + autonomic (involuntary) $arrow$ sympathetic (go) vs.\ parasympathetic (rest).

Different brain regions are specialized for different functions, and modern neuroimaging techniques let researchers observe brain structure and activity without surgery.

Hindbrain: medulla (heartbeat, breathing), pons, cerebellum (balance, coordinated movement). Midbrain: reticular formation (arousal/alertness). Forebrain: thalamus (sensory relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis, hunger, links to the endocrine system via the pituitary), limbic system (amygdala = fear/aggression, hippocampus = forming new explicit memories). Cerebral cortex lobes: frontal (executive function, Broca's area = speech production), parietal (touch, spatial sense), temporal (hearing, Wernicke's area = language comprehension), occipital (vision). Split-brain research (Sperry & Gazzaniga) severed the corpus callosum, revealing hemispheric specialization. EEG measures electrical activity; CT/MRI show structure; PET/fMRI show function/activity.

Broca's area (frontal lobe, speech PRODUCTION --- damage causes halting speech) vs.\ Wernicke's area (temporal lobe, language COMPREHENSION --- damage causes fluent but meaningless speech).

Students think the hippocampus stores all long-term memories permanently; it is critical for forming NEW explicit memories, while long-term storage is distributed across the cortex.

Frontal = executive/Broca's (produce); temporal = hearing/Wernicke's (comprehend); amygdala = fear; hippocampus = new memories.

Behavior is shaped jointly by slow-acting hormonal messages from the endocrine system and by gene--environment interaction, not by nature or nurture alone.

The pituitary gland (``master gland,'' controlled by the hypothalamus) regulates other glands; the adrenal glands release epinephrine and cortisol during stress; the thyroid regulates metabolism. Twin studies compare monozygotic (identical, $≈$100% shared genes) vs.\ dizygotic (fraternal, $≈$50% shared genes) twins to estimate heritability; adoption studies separate genetic from environmental influence. Heritability is a population statistic --- the proportion of VARIATION in a trait attributable to genes within a specific group --- not an individual statistic. Epigenetics: environmental factors can switch genes on/off without changing the DNA sequence.

Heritability (variation across a POPULATION explained by genes) vs.\ a trait being ``genetic'' in one person --- heritability says nothing about the cause of any single individual's trait.

Students say a trait with 50% heritability means ``50% caused by genes'' in that person; heritability is a population-level statistic about variation, not a split within one individual.

MZ ($≈$100% genes) vs.\ DZ ($≈$50%) twins $arrow$ heritability = % of population VARIATION explained by genes.

Sensation is the raw detection of stimulus energy, governed by measurable thresholds and by the nervous system's tendency to notice change rather than constant stimulation.

Absolute threshold = the minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time. Difference threshold (just noticeable difference, JND) = the minimum detectable difference between two stimuli. Weber's law: the JND is a constant PROPORTION of the original stimulus, not a fixed amount. Signal detection theory accounts for how motivation and expectation affect what we notice. Sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus over time (e.g., no longer smelling your own perfume).

Sensation (raw detection of stimulus energy by receptors) vs.\ perception (the brain's organization and interpretation of that raw sensory input).

Students think a larger absolute stimulus always produces a larger JND; per Weber's law, the JND scales proportionally --- a heavier weight requires a proportionally BIGGER added weight to notice a difference.

Absolute threshold = 50% detection; JND = smallest noticeable difference; Weber's law = JND is a constant % of stimulus.

Vision and hearing each rely on specialized receptor cells that transduce physical energy (light waves, sound waves) into neural signals, explained by competing-but-complementary theories.

Retina: rods (night/peripheral vision, no color) and cones (color, detail, concentrated in the fovea). Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) theory: three cone types (red, green, blue) explain color vision at the receptor level; opponent-process (Hering) theory: opposing color pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) explain afterimages and later visual processing --- both are correct at different stages. Hearing: sound waves are transduced by hair cells in the cochlea; place theory explains high-pitch perception (location on the basilar membrane), frequency theory explains low-pitch perception (rate of neural firing matches wave frequency).

Trichromatic theory (explains color detection at the RECEPTOR/cone level) vs.\ opponent-process theory (explains color processing FARTHER along the visual pathway, including afterimages).

Students treat place theory and frequency theory as contradictory; the exam treats them as complementary, each explaining a different pitch range (place = high pitch, frequency = low pitch).

Rods = night/no color; cones = color/detail. Trichromatic (receptors) + opponent-process (afterimages) both correct. Place = high pitch; frequency = low pitch.

The brain actively organizes raw sensory input into meaningful wholes using built-in organizing principles and learned cues, rather than passively recording the world.

Gestalt principles: figure-ground (separating an object from its background), proximity (grouping nearby elements), similarity (grouping alike elements), closure (filling in gaps to perceive a whole). Depth perception uses binocular cues (retinal disparity, convergence --- require two eyes) and monocular cues (relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient --- work with one eye). Perceptual constancy: objects are perceived as having stable size, shape, and color despite changes in the retinal image (e.g., viewing angle or lighting).

Binocular depth cues (retinal disparity, convergence --- require both eyes) vs.\ monocular depth cues (relative size, interposition, linear perspective --- work with just one eye).

Students label any 3-D perception cue as ``binocular''; most real-world depth cues in a flat image (a photo, a painting) are monocular, since only one ``eye'' (the camera) captured them.

Gestalt: figure-ground, proximity, similarity, closure. Binocular = 2 eyes (disparity); monocular = 1 eye (size, interposition).

Sleep cycles through distinct, biologically defined stages roughly every 90 minutes, and competing theories explain why we dream rather than simply record what happens.

Circadian rhythm = the roughly 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles, governed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. NREM stages 1--3 progress from light sleep to deep, slow-wave sleep; REM sleep features rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, and near-total muscle paralysis (atonia). A full sleep cycle is $≈$90 minutes, with REM proportion increasing later in the night. Sleep disorders: insomnia (difficulty falling/staying asleep), narcolepsy (sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks), sleep apnea (repeated breathing interruption). Freud's wish-fulfillment theory (dreams express unconscious desires, manifest vs.\ latent content) vs.\ the activation-synthesis theory (Hobson & McCarley: dreams are the brain's attempt to interpret random neural activity during REM).

Freud's wish-fulfillment theory of dreaming (unconscious desires, symbolic content) vs.\ activation-synthesis theory (dreams as the cortex's interpretation of random brainstem activity).

Students think dreaming only occurs in REM; some mental activity occurs in NREM sleep too, but REM is specifically the stage of vivid, well-recalled dreaming paired with muscle atonia.

NREM 1-2-3 (light to deep) $arrow$ REM (atonia, vivid dreams); $≈$90-min cycles; Freud = wish fulfillment, Hobson-McCarley = activation-synthesis.

Both hypnosis and psychoactive drugs alter normal waking consciousness, but through very different mechanisms --- one social/attentional, the other pharmacological.

Psychoactive drug categories: depressants (alcohol, barbiturates --- slow neural activity), stimulants (caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine --- speed up neural activity), hallucinogens/psychedelics (LSD --- distort perception), opioids (morphine, heroin --- relieve pain, produce euphoria by mimicking endorphins). Tolerance = needing more of a drug for the same effect; withdrawal = unpleasant symptoms when a drug is stopped; physical dependence vs.\ psychological dependence. Hypnosis involves a state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility; the social influence theory views it as a form of normal social role-playing rather than an altered trance state.

Physical dependence (the body has adapted and requires the drug to function normally, producing withdrawal) vs.\ psychological dependence (a perceived emotional/mental need for the drug without physical withdrawal).

Students assume all psychoactive drugs work the same way; the exam tests category-specific effects (e.g., opioids mimic endorphins, stimulants increase dopamine/norepinephrine activity).

Depressants slow $$, stimulants speed $$, opioids mimic endorphins, hallucinogens distort; tolerance $arrow$ need more; withdrawal on stopping.

Classical conditioning is learning an association between two stimuli, so that a previously neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response it did not originally cause.

Pavlov's dogs: unconditioned stimulus (UCS, food) naturally triggers an unconditioned response (UCR, salivation); pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with the UCS repeatedly makes it a conditioned stimulus (CS) that triggers a conditioned response (CR, salivation to the bell alone). Acquisition = initial learning of the CS--UCS link; extinction = CR weakens when CS is repeatedly presented without UCS; spontaneous recovery = the extinguished CR reappears after a rest period; generalization = responding to stimuli similar to the CS; discrimination = learning to distinguish the CS from similar stimuli. Watson & Rayner's ``Little Albert'' study conditioned fear of a white rat in an infant, demonstrating conditioned emotional responses.

Extinction (the CR weakens and stops appearing) vs.\ spontaneous recovery (the weakened/extinguished CR reappears after a rest period, showing the original learning was suppressed, not erased).

Students think an extinguished response is permanently gone; spontaneous recovery shows the underlying association can reappear after a rest period.

UCS$arrow$UCR naturally; pair with neutral stimulus $arrow$ CS$arrow$CR. Extinction = weakens; spontaneous recovery = reappears.

Operant conditioning is learning an association between a voluntary BEHAVIOR and its CONSEQUENCE, so behaviors followed by reinforcement increase and behaviors followed by punishment decrease.

Skinner's operant chamber (``Skinner box'') is the classic apparatus. Positive reinforcement (adds a pleasant stimulus) and negative reinforcement (removes an aversive stimulus) both INCREASE behavior; positive punishment (adds an aversive stimulus) and negative punishment (removes a pleasant stimulus) both DECREASE behavior. Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio (reward after a set number of responses), variable-ratio (reward after an unpredictable number --- produces the highest, most extinction-resistant response rate, e.g., gambling), fixed-interval (reward after a set time), variable-interval (reward after unpredictable time). Shaping = reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.

Negative reinforcement (REMOVES something aversive to INCREASE behavior --- e.g., taking aspirin to end a headache) vs.\ punishment (DECREASES behavior, regardless of whether something is added or removed).

Students label negative reinforcement as a form of punishment because ``negative'' sounds bad; negative reinforcement always increases behavior, punishment always decreases it.

Reinforcement = increases behavior (add=positive, remove=negative); punishment = decreases behavior; variable-ratio = most resistant to extinction.

Learning can happen without direct reinforcement --- by watching others (observational learning) or by forming internal mental representations (cognitive learning) that are not immediately expressed in behavior.

Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated observational learning: children imitated an adult model's aggressive behavior toward a doll, especially when the model was rewarded (vicarious reinforcement). Modeling requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Self-efficacy = belief in one's own competence; reciprocal determinism = behavior, personal/cognitive factors, and environment all influence each other. Tolman's rats showed latent learning (learning that occurs without reinforcement and isn't demonstrated until there's an incentive) via cognitive maps of a maze. K\"ohler's chimpanzees showed insight learning --- a sudden realization of a problem's solution, not gradual trial and error.

Latent learning (learning happens but is HIDDEN until there's a reason to demonstrate it) vs.\ insight learning (a sudden ``aha'' realization of a solution, without incremental trial and error).

Students assume Bandura's findings require the model to be reinforced for imitation to occur; imitation can occur even without any reinforcement to the observer, though vicarious reinforcement increases its likelihood.

Bandura = observational (Bobo doll, vicarious reinforcement); Tolman = latent learning (cognitive maps); K\"ohler = insight (sudden ``aha'').

Memory is not a single system but a sequence of stages --- sensory, short-term/working, and long-term --- each with different capacity and duration, and the way information is encoded strongly determines how well it is later remembered.

Atkinson-Shiffrin's three-stage model: sensory memory (brief, high-capacity, iconic/echoic) $arrow$ short-term/working memory (limited capacity, $7±2$ chunks per Miller, lasts $≈$20--30 seconds without rehearsal; Baddeley's working memory model adds active manipulation via phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive) $arrow$ long-term memory (essentially unlimited capacity/duration). Semantic encoding (meaning) produces better retention than visual or acoustic encoding (levels-of-processing effect, Craik & Lockhart). Explicit/declarative memory (facts, events --- hippocampus-dependent) vs.\ implicit/procedural memory (skills, conditioned responses --- does not require conscious recall).

Explicit/declarative memory (consciously recalled facts and events) vs.\ implicit/procedural memory (unconscious skills and conditioned associations, e.g., riding a bike).

Students assume rehearsal alone guarantees strong long-term retention; DEEPER, meaning-based (semantic) processing produces far better recall than shallow rote repetition of a word's sound or appearance.

Sensory $arrow$ STM/working ($7±2$, 20--30 sec) $arrow$ LTM. Semantic encoding beats shallow encoding. Explicit = conscious facts; implicit = unconscious skills.

Remembering is a reconstructive process, not a video playback, and forgetting happens through predictable, measurable patterns rather than simple decay of a fixed trace.

Recall (retrieving information with no cues, e.g., a fill-in-the-blank question) is harder than recognition (identifying information from options, e.g., multiple choice). The serial position effect: primacy (early items recalled well, into LTM) and recency (last items recalled well, still in STM) produce a U-shaped recall curve. Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows most forgetting happens rapidly right after learning, then levels off. Proactive interference (OLD learning disrupts recall of NEW information) vs.\ retroactive interference (NEW learning disrupts recall of OLD information). Loftus's misinformation effect demonstrates memory is reconstructive --- post-event misleading information can distort or create false memories.

Proactive interference (OLD blocks NEW) vs.\ retroactive interference (NEW blocks OLD).

Students treat multiple-choice (recognition) and fill-in-the-blank (recall) difficulty as equivalent measures of ``how much you remember''; recognition tasks are systematically easier because retrieval cues are provided.

Recall $>$ recognition = harder. Primacy=LTM, recency=STM. Proactive=old blocks new; retroactive=new blocks old. Loftus = memory is reconstructive.

Human thinking relies heavily on mental shortcuts (heuristics) that are fast and usually useful but systematically biased, and language ability reflects both innate structure and learned experience.

Algorithms (step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a solution, but slow) vs.\ heuristics (mental shortcuts, fast but error-prone). Kahneman & Tversky's key heuristics: availability heuristic (judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind) and representativeness heuristic (judging by similarity to a prototype, ignoring base rates). Confirmation bias and functional fixedness (failing to see novel uses for a familiar object) also impede problem solving. Language debate: Chomsky (nativist --- an innate language acquisition device and universal grammar) vs.\ Skinner (language is learned through reinforcement and imitation). The linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorf) proposes that language shapes/constrains thought.

Availability heuristic (based on how easily examples come to MIND) vs.\ representativeness heuristic (based on how similar something is to a PROTOTYPE/stereotype).

Students think heuristics are simply ``wrong'' reasoning; heuristics are efficient and usually accurate --- the exam tests recognizing the SPECIFIC bias each heuristic produces (e.g., overestimating plane crash risk after news coverage = availability).

Algorithm = guaranteed but slow; heuristic = fast but biased. Availability = ease of recall; representativeness = similarity to prototype. Chomsky = innate; Skinner = learned.

Psychologists disagree on whether intelligence is one general ability or many independent abilities, and intelligence tests must be both reliable and valid to be useful.

Spearman's $g$ factor = a single general intelligence underlying all cognitive tasks. Gardner's multiple intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal) rejects a single $g$. Sternberg's triarchic theory: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. Binet developed the first intelligence test (mental age concept); Terman adapted it into the Stanford-Binet; Wechsler created the WAIS (adults) and WISC (children), which yield separate verbal and performance scores. Modern IQ scores are normed to a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15, forming a normal (bell-shaped) distribution. Fluid intelligence (novel reasoning, declines with age) vs.\ crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge, stable or increases with age).

Fluid intelligence (on-the-spot novel reasoning, peaks earlier) vs.\ crystallized intelligence (accumulated facts/skills, stable across adulthood).

Students assume a single ``IQ number'' fully captures intelligence per every modern theorist; Gardner and Sternberg both explicitly reject a single general factor in favor of multiple distinct abilities.

Spearman = one $g$; Gardner = multiple intelligences; Sternberg = triarchic (analytical/creative/practical). IQ: mean 100, SD 15.

Different motivation theories explain behavior at different levels --- from restoring internal biological balance to pursuing external rewards to satisfying a hierarchy of needs.

Instinct theory: behavior is driven by innate, species-specific fixed patterns (largely replaced by modern theories). Drive-reduction theory: physiological needs create an aroused drive state that motivates behavior to restore homeostasis (internal balance). Arousal theory / Yerkes-Dodson law: performance is best at a MODERATE level of arousal, not maximal or minimal --- and the optimal level depends on task difficulty. Incentive theory: behavior is pulled by external rewards, not just pushed by internal needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs: physiological $arrow$ safety $arrow$ belongingness/love $arrow$ esteem $arrow$ self-actualization, with lower needs generally prioritized before higher ones.

Drive-reduction theory (motivation driven by internal biological need/homeostasis) vs.\ incentive theory (motivation pulled by external rewards, independent of internal deficit).

Students assume more arousal always improves performance; the Yerkes-Dodson law predicts an inverted-U --- too little OR too much arousal both hurt performance, especially on complex tasks.

Drive-reduction = push (internal need); incentive = pull (external reward); Yerkes-Dodson = moderate arousal is best (inverted U); Maslow = needs hierarchy.

Emotion theories disagree mainly about the ORDER in which physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and the subjective feeling of emotion occur.

James-Lange theory: the stimulus triggers physiological arousal FIRST, and the subjective emotion follows from perceiving that arousal (``I am afraid because my heart is racing''). Cannon-Bard theory: arousal and the subjective emotional experience occur SIMULTANEOUSLY and independently. Schachter-Singer two-factor theory: emotion requires both physiological arousal AND a cognitive label/interpretation of that arousal (demonstrated by Schachter & Singer's arousal-misattribution experiments). Lazarus's cognitive-appraisal theory: a cognitive appraisal of a situation must occur before any emotional/physiological response, even if the appraisal is not conscious. The facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions can themselves influence/intensify felt emotion.

James-Lange (arousal $arrow$ emotion, arousal comes first) vs.\ Cannon-Bard (arousal and emotion happen AT THE SAME TIME, independently of each other).

Students conflate Cannon-Bard and Schachter-Singer because both involve simultaneous processes; Schachter-Singer's defining feature is that a COGNITIVE LABEL is required to determine which specific emotion is felt from generic arousal.

James-Lange: arousal$arrow$feeling. Cannon-Bard: simultaneous. Schachter-Singer: arousal+cognitive label. Lazarus: appraisal comes first.

Early development follows a fixed prenatal sequence vulnerable to environmental harm, and the quality of early attachment bonds shapes later social and emotional functioning.

Prenatal stages: germinal (conception--2 weeks) $arrow$ embryonic (2--8 weeks, organ formation) $arrow$ fetal (8 weeks--birth). Teratogens (e.g., alcohol, causing fetal alcohol syndrome) are agents that can harm prenatal development. Harlow's monkey studies showed infant monkeys preferred a soft ``contact comfort'' surrogate mother over a wire one that dispensed food, showing attachment is not driven by feeding alone. Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure classifies attachment styles: secure (distressed when caregiver leaves, comforted on return), avoidant (little distress, avoids caregiver on return), resistant/ambivalent (very distressed, difficult to comfort on return), and disorganized. Erikson's first psychosocial stage: trust vs.\ mistrust (infancy).

Secure attachment (uses caregiver as a safe base, easily comforted) vs.\ resistant/ambivalent attachment (highly distressed at separation but resists comfort on reunion).

Students think Harlow's results show feeding is irrelevant to attachment; the study shows contact comfort matters MORE than feeding, not that feeding is unimportant to survival.

Germinal$arrow$embryonic$arrow$fetal; teratogens harm development. Harlow = contact comfort $>$ feeding. Ainsworth: secure/avoidant/resistant/disorganized.

Piaget proposed that children move through qualitatively distinct stages of reasoning as they mature, while Vygotsky emphasized that social interaction and cultural tools actively drive cognitive growth.

Piaget's stages: sensorimotor (birth--2, object permanence develops), preoperational (2--7, egocentrism, symbolic thought, lacks conservation), concrete operational (7--11, conservation and logical reasoning about concrete objects), formal operational (12+, abstract and hypothetical reasoning). Conservation = understanding that quantity stays the same despite a change in appearance (e.g., pouring liquid into a differently shaped container). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) = the range of tasks a child can do with guided assistance but not yet alone; scaffolding = the temporary support adults/peers provide within the ZPD.

Piaget (development unfolds through universal, largely biologically-timed stages) vs.\ Vygotsky (development is driven by social interaction and culturally-specific scaffolding within the ZPD).

Students think a preoperational child who fails a conservation task simply lacks the physical ability to see the objects are equal; the deficit is a REASONING limitation (they're distracted by the more salient perceptual dimension), not a perceptual one.

Sensorimotor (object permanence) $arrow$ preoperational (egocentric, no conservation) $arrow$ concrete operational (conservation) $arrow$ formal operational (abstract). Vygotsky = ZPD + scaffolding.

Development continues across the entire lifespan through predictable psychosocial crises and a progression in moral reasoning, not just through childhood.

Erikson's 8 psychosocial stages span life: trust vs.\ mistrust (infancy), autonomy vs.\ shame/doubt (toddler), initiative vs.\ guilt (preschool), industry vs.\ inferiority (school age), identity vs.\ role confusion (adolescence), intimacy vs.\ isolation (young adulthood), generativity vs.\ stagnation (middle adulthood), integrity vs.\ despair (late adulthood). Kohlberg's stages of moral development: preconventional (avoiding punishment/seeking reward), conventional (following social norms/laws), postconventional (abstract, self-defined ethical principles that may override laws) --- based on responses to moral dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma.

Erikson's identity vs.\ role confusion (the central adolescent crisis, about forming a stable self-concept) vs.\ Kohlberg's conventional level (about conforming to social rules/laws, not identity per se).

Students think Kohlberg's stages are graded by the CHOICE a person makes in a moral dilemma; they are graded by the REASONING behind the choice, not the choice itself.

Erikson: 8 stages, adolescence = identity vs.\ role confusion. Kohlberg: preconventional (punishment/reward) $arrow$ conventional (norms) $arrow$ postconventional (principles).

Psychoanalytic theory locates personality in unconscious conflict, while humanistic theory locates it in a conscious drive toward growth and self-fulfillment.

Freud's structural model: id (unconscious, pleasure principle, present at birth), ego (reality principle, mediates id and superego), superego (internalized moral standards). Defense mechanisms (unconscious ego strategies to reduce anxiety): repression (blocking threatening thoughts from awareness --- the foundation of all others), denial, projection, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation. Freud's psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. Jung: collective unconscious, archetypes. Rogers' humanistic/client-centered approach emphasizes unconditional positive regard, empathy, genuineness, and a healthy self-concept. Maslow: self-actualization as the pinnacle of human motivation.

Repression (unconsciously BLOCKING a threatening thought from ever reaching awareness) vs.\ suppression (a conscious, deliberate choice to not think about something).

Students think all defense mechanisms are pathological; in Freud's theory they are normal, universal, unconscious processes that only become problematic when overused or rigid.

Id (pleasure) / ego (reality) / superego (morality). Repression = base defense mechanism. Rogers = unconditional positive regard; Maslow = self-actualization.

Trait theories describe personality as a stable set of dimensions along which people differ, while social-cognitive theory frames personality as an ongoing interaction between the person, their behavior, and their environment.

Allport catalogued thousands of trait words; Cattell reduced traits statistically (factor analysis) to 16 source traits; Eysenck proposed core dimensions including extraversion-introversion and stability-instability. The modern consensus is the Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Bandura's social-cognitive theory: reciprocal determinism --- behavior, internal cognitive/personal factors, and the environment all continuously influence one another; self-efficacy = belief in one's competence to succeed. Rotter's locus of control: internal (outcomes attributed to one's own effort) vs.\ external (outcomes attributed to luck/outside forces).

Internal locus of control (I control my outcomes) vs.\ external locus of control (outside forces/luck control my outcomes) --- Rotter's concept, distinct from self-efficacy (belief in ABILITY to succeed at a task).

Students think reciprocal determinism means the environment alone shapes behavior (a purely behaviorist claim); Bandura's model is explicitly bidirectional --- behavior also shapes the environment and one's cognitions.

Big Five = OCEAN. Bandura: reciprocal determinism (person $≤ftrightarrow$ behavior $≤ftrightarrow$ environment) + self-efficacy. Rotter: internal vs.\ external locus of control.

Personality can be measured with objective, empirically-derived inventories or with projective techniques that infer unconscious content from ambiguous stimuli, and these two approaches trade off standardization against depth.

The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is an objective, empirically-derived, true/false inventory originally designed to identify psychological disorders, with built-in validity scales to detect faking. Projective tests present ambiguous stimuli and ask the test-taker to interpret them, theoretically revealing unconscious content: the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT, storytelling about ambiguous scenes). Projective tests generally have lower reliability and validity than objective inventories.

Objective/empirically-derived tests (MMPI --- standardized scoring, higher reliability) vs.\ projective tests (Rorschach, TAT --- subjective interpretation, lower reliability/validity but claimed to access unconscious material).

Students assume projective tests are the ``gold standard'' for personality because they are famous; on reliability/validity grounds, objective inventories like the MMPI are psychometrically stronger.

MMPI = objective, empirically-derived, higher reliability. Rorschach/TAT = projective, ambiguous stimuli, lower reliability/validity.

Modern clinical psychology classifies disorders descriptively by observable symptom criteria rather than by asserting a specific cause, using a shared diagnostic manual.

The DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association) provides standardized diagnostic criteria for disorders based on symptoms, duration, and impairment --- it is descriptive, not causal. The medical model views psychological disorders as illnesses with identifiable symptoms and possible cures/treatment, often via biological causes. The biopsychosocial model views disorders as arising from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors, the dominant modern framework for understanding etiology.

The medical model (frames disorders primarily as biological illness) vs.\ the biopsychosocial model (integrates biological, psychological, and social factors together).

Students think the DSM-5-TR explains WHY a disorder occurs; it is a descriptive, symptom-based classification system that enables consistent diagnosis, not a causal theory.

DSM-5-TR = descriptive symptom criteria, not causes. Medical model = illness/biology. Biopsychosocial = bio + psycho + social together.

Anxiety-related disorders involve excessive, persistent fear or worry, while mood disorders involve a sustained disturbance in emotional state --- either depressive lows, manic highs, or both.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): chronic, excessive worry not tied to one trigger. Panic disorder: recurrent, unpredictable panic attacks with intense physical symptoms. Specific phobias: irrational, intense fear of a specific object/situation. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): unwanted intrusive thoughts (obsessions) paired with repetitive behaviors performed to reduce anxiety (compulsions). Major depressive disorder requires depressed mood/loss of interest plus other symptoms persisting at least 2 consecutive weeks. Bipolar disorder involves alternating manic episodes (elevated mood, high energy, impulsivity) and depressive episodes.

Panic disorder (sudden, intense, discrete attacks of physical symptoms) vs.\ generalized anxiety disorder (chronic, diffuse worry without discrete attacks).

Students think OCD is just a personality quirk of liking things ``neat''; clinically, OCD requires that the obsessions/compulsions cause significant distress or consume substantial time/impairment.

GAD = chronic worry; panic = discrete attacks; OCD = obsessions+compulsions; MDD $≥q$2 weeks; bipolar = mania + depression episodes.

Schizophrenia is defined by a break from reality involving both added and absent normal functions, while dissociative and personality disorders involve disruptions in identity/memory or rigid, maladaptive traits, respectively.

Schizophrenia's positive symptoms (abnormal experiences ADDED) include hallucinations and delusions; negative symptoms (normal functions ABSENT/diminished) include flat affect and avolition (lack of motivation). The dopamine hypothesis links excess dopamine activity to schizophrenia symptoms. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) involves two or more distinct identities within one person; dissociative amnesia involves an inability to recall important personal information, often after trauma. Personality disorders are enduring, inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thinking and behaving; antisocial personality disorder involves a lack of conscience/empathy and disregard for others' rights; borderline personality disorder involves unstable relationships, self-image, and emotions.

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia (abnormal experiences ADDED --- hallucinations, delusions) vs.\ negative symptoms (normal functions ABSENT --- flat affect, avolition) --- ``positive'' does not mean a good outcome.

Students read ``positive symptoms'' as meaning the patient is improving; ``positive'' here means symptoms added to normal experience, not a favorable outcome.

Schizophrenia: positive = added (hallucinations/delusions); negative = absent (flat affect). DID = multiple identities. Antisocial = no conscience; borderline = unstable relationships/emotions.

Chronic stress produces a predictable physiological response pattern and measurably weakens the immune system, but the impact of a stressor is strongly shaped by how a person appraises and copes with it.

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): alarm reaction (initial fight-or-flight arousal) $arrow$ resistance (body adapts, continues coping) $arrow$ exhaustion (resources depleted, increased vulnerability to illness). Psychoneuroimmunology studies how stress, the nervous system, and the immune system interact --- chronic stress suppresses immune functioning. Coping strategies: problem-focused coping (directly addressing the stressor) vs.\ emotion-focused coping (managing the emotional response to the stressor). Type A personality (competitive, urgent, hostile) has been linked to higher cardiovascular risk than the more relaxed Type B personality.

Problem-focused coping (attacking the stressor itself) vs.\ emotion-focused coping (managing one's emotional reaction when the stressor can't be changed).

Students think stress is purely physiological; the exam tests that cognitive APPRAISAL of a stressor (perceiving it as a threat vs.\ a challenge) is central to how much stress response it triggers.

GAS: alarm $arrow$ resistance $arrow$ exhaustion. Problem-focused = fix the stressor; emotion-focused = manage the feeling. Type A = hostile/urgent = higher cardiovascular risk.

Insight therapies aim to produce improvement by increasing a client's self-understanding, whether by uncovering unconscious conflict (psychodynamic) or by fostering a supportive, accepting relationship (humanistic).

Psychoanalysis (Freud) uses free association (saying whatever comes to mind without censoring) and dream analysis to uncover repressed unconscious conflicts; transference occurs when a client redirects feelings about important figures onto the therapist. Modern psychodynamic therapy is briefer and more focused than classical psychoanalysis. Rogers' client-centered (person-centered) therapy is nondirective and relies on active listening, genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard to help clients reach their own insights and move toward self-actualization.

Psychoanalysis (directive interpretation of UNCONSCIOUS conflict by the therapist) vs.\ client-centered therapy (nondirective, client leads, therapist provides unconditional positive regard).

Students think client-centered therapists actively interpret and direct the conversation; the defining feature of Rogerian therapy is that it is NONDIRECTIVE --- the therapist reflects and supports rather than interprets or advises.

Psychoanalysis: free association + dream analysis + transference (unconscious). Client-centered: nondirective, unconditional positive regard, active listening.

Behavioral therapies apply learning principles directly to change maladaptive behavior, while cognitive therapies target the distorted THOUGHTS believed to cause maladaptive emotions and behavior.

Systematic desensitization (Wolpe) pairs relaxation with a graduated hierarchy of feared stimuli to counter-condition anxiety/phobias, based on classical conditioning. Exposure therapy involves direct, repeated confrontation with a feared stimulus. Token economies reward desired behaviors with tokens exchangeable for privileges, based on operant conditioning. Beck's cognitive therapy targets automatic negative thought patterns/cognitive distortions underlying depression. Ellis's rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) uses the ABC model (Activating event, Belief, Consequence) and actively, sometimes confrontationally, disputes irrational beliefs. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive restructuring with behavioral techniques and is among the most empirically supported treatments.

Systematic desensitization (GRADUAL exposure paired with relaxation, based on classical conditioning) vs.\ token economies (reinforcing behavior with tokens, based on operant conditioning).

Students think all behavior therapy is the same as cognitive therapy since both are ``short-term''; behavioral therapy targets observable BEHAVIOR directly, cognitive therapy targets underlying THOUGHTS/beliefs, and CBT deliberately combines both.

Systematic desensitization = gradual + relaxation (classical). Token economy = operant. Beck = cognitive distortions. Ellis = REBT/ABC model. CBT = thoughts + behavior.

Biomedical therapies change psychological functioning by directly altering brain chemistry or activity, and rigorous evaluation is required to know whether any therapy actually works better than no treatment or a placebo.

Psychopharmacology: antipsychotics (reduce dopamine activity, treat schizophrenia's positive symptoms), antidepressants including SSRIs (block serotonin reuptake, increasing available serotonin), anti-anxiety drugs/benzodiazepines (depress CNS activity), and mood stabilizers such as lithium (for bipolar disorder). Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used for severe, treatment-resistant depression under anesthesia. Psychosurgery (e.g., the historical lobotomy) is rare and irreversible. Evaluating treatment: empirically supported treatments require controlled outcome research; the placebo effect means improvement can occur from expectation alone, so clinical trials require placebo/control comparison; meta-analysis combines results across many studies for a more reliable overall conclusion.

Antipsychotics (primarily reduce DOPAMINE activity, target schizophrenia) vs.\ SSRIs (block SEROTONIN reuptake, target depression/anxiety).

Students think a client's improvement after any therapy proves that specific therapy caused it; without a placebo/control comparison, spontaneous remission or the placebo effect could explain the same improvement.

Antipsychotics $$dopamine; SSRIs block serotonin reuptake; lithium = bipolar; ECT = severe depression. Always compare to placebo/control to evaluate a therapy.

People systematically explain others' behavior differently than their own, and inconsistency between attitudes and behavior creates psychological tension that people are motivated to resolve.

Attribution theory: dispositional attribution (behavior caused by internal traits/personality) vs.\ situational attribution (behavior caused by external circumstances). The fundamental attribution error = overestimating dispositional causes and underestimating situational causes when judging OTHERS' behavior. The actor-observer bias extends this: we attribute our OWN behavior situationally but others' behavior dispositionally. The self-serving bias = attributing our own successes to disposition and our failures to situation. Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory: when attitudes and behavior conflict, people feel psychological tension and often change their ATTITUDE (rather than the behavior) to reduce it.

Fundamental attribution error (judging OTHERS' behavior as dispositional) vs.\ self-serving bias (judging one's OWN successes as dispositional and failures as situational).

Students apply the fundamental attribution error to a person judging their OWN behavior; FAE specifically concerns judging OTHERS, while judging oneself favorably follows the self-serving bias.

FAE = judge others dispositionally. Self-serving bias = my success=me, my failure=situation. Cognitive dissonance $arrow$ change the attitude to match the behavior.

Social influence operates through several distinct mechanisms --- matching a group's behavior (conformity), yielding to a direct request (compliance), and following a command from an authority figure (obedience) --- each demonstrated by a classic experiment.

Asch's line-judgment studies showed people conform to an obviously wrong group answer a substantial portion of the time due to normative social influence (wanting to fit in) even without any real ambiguity in the correct answer. Compliance techniques: foot-in-the-door (getting agreement to a small request first, then a larger one) and door-in-the-face (starting with a large request expected to be refused, then requesting a smaller one). Milgram's obedience studies showed a majority of participants delivered what they believed were dangerous electric shocks to a confederate simply because an authority figure instructed them to continue, revealing the situational power of legitimate authority.

Normative social influence (conforming to be liked/accepted, even against one's private judgment) vs.\ informational social influence (conforming because others' behavior is used as evidence about reality, especially in ambiguous situations).

Students think Milgram's results reflect participants' individual cruelty; the study's key point is that SITUATIONAL factors (proximity to authority, gradual escalation) drove obedience across ordinary people, not preexisting sadistic traits.

Asch = conformity (line judgments). Milgram = obedience (authority). Foot-in-the-door = small$arrow$big; door-in-the-face = big$arrow$small.

Being part of a group systematically changes individual behavior --- sometimes boosting performance, sometimes suppressing effort or distorting decisions --- and whether people help a stranger in need depends heavily on situational factors, not just personal character.

Social facilitation = performing simple/well-learned tasks better in front of others. Social loafing = exerting less individual effort on a group task when individual contributions can't be evaluated (diffusion of responsibility for effort). Groupthink = a group's desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives, leading to poor decisions. Group polarization = group discussion strengthens the group's initial leaning (toward greater risk or caution). The frustration-aggression hypothesis proposes that blocked goals increase aggressive impulses. Darley & Latan\'e's bystander studies identified the bystander effect: the presence of other bystanders REDUCES the likelihood any individual will help, due to diffusion of responsibility.

Social facilitation (individual performance improves with an audience, on easy/well-learned tasks) vs.\ social loafing (individual effort DECREASES within a group task where contributions aren't individually tracked).

Students think more bystanders at an emergency means help is more likely; Darley and Latan\'e demonstrated the opposite --- more bystanders diffuse individual responsibility and DECREASE the odds any one person intervenes.

Social facilitation = better w/ audience (easy tasks). Social loafing = less effort in groups. Groupthink = false harmony. More bystanders $arrow$ LESS individual helping.

Prejudice is a biased attitude toward a group that can arise from ordinary cognitive categorization processes and situational competition, and close relationships form predictably from a small set of well-documented factors.

Stereotype = a generalized (often oversimplified) belief about a group; prejudice = a negative ATTITUDE toward a group based on that generalization; discrimination = negative BEHAVIOR/unfair treatment based on group membership. In-group bias = favoring one's own group; out-group homogeneity effect = perceiving out-group members as more similar to each other than they really are. Scapegoat theory: prejudice increases when people displace frustration/blame onto a subordinate group. Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment demonstrated realistic conflict theory: competition over limited resources increases intergroup hostility, while superordinate (shared) goals reduced it. Interpersonal attraction is reliably predicted by proximity (mere exposure effect), similarity, and physical attractiveness.

Prejudice (a negative ATTITUDE/belief toward a group) vs.\ discrimination (a negative ACTION/behavior toward members of that group) --- one can exist without the other.

Students think prejudice always causes discrimination directly; the exam tests that attitudes (prejudice) and behavior (discrimination) can diverge --- someone can hold a biased attitude without acting on it, or vice versa.

Stereotype = belief; prejudice = attitude; discrimination = behavior. Sherif: shared goals reduce intergroup conflict. Attraction: proximity + similarity + attractiveness.

Descriptive statistics summarize a data set's center and spread, while a correlation coefficient quantifies the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables --- without ever implying causation.

Mean (arithmetic average, pulled by outliers), median (middle score, resistant to outliers/skew), mode (most frequent score). In a distribution skewed by high outliers, the mean is pulled higher than the median. Standard deviation measures the typical spread of scores around the mean; a normal (bell-shaped) distribution is symmetric around the mean. A correlation coefficient ($r$) ranges from $-1$ to $+1$: the sign shows direction, the absolute value shows strength; values near 0 indicate little to no linear relationship.

A strong correlation (coefficient near $±1$) vs.\ a causal relationship --- a correlation, no matter how strong, never by itself establishes that one variable causes the other.

Students reverse the skew rule: in a distribution skewed by high outliers (positively skewed), the mean is pulled HIGHER than the median, not lower.

Mean = outlier-sensitive; median = outlier-resistant. $r$: $-1$ to $+1$, sign=direction, magnitude=strength. Correlation $≠$ causation, ever.

A useful psychological test must be both consistent (reliable) and accurate at measuring what it claims to measure (valid) --- a test can be reliable without being valid, but not valid without being reliable.

Reliability = consistency of a measure, assessed via test-retest reliability (same test, two occasions) or split-half reliability (comparing two halves of the same test). Validity = accuracy of what a test measures; content validity (does it cover the intended content?), construct validity (does it measure the theoretical construct it claims to?), and criterion validity (does it predict a relevant real-world outcome?). Standardization = establishing uniform testing procedures and comparing scores to a pretested norm group. Achievement tests measure what has already been learned; aptitude tests aim to predict future performance/capacity to learn.

Reliability (consistency of results across repeated measurement) vs.\ validity (whether the test actually measures the intended construct) --- a bathroom scale that's off by 10 lbs.\ every time is reliable but not valid.

Students assume a highly reliable test is automatically a good/valid test; a test can produce very consistent scores while still measuring the wrong construct entirely.

Reliability = consistent; validity = accurate/measures the right thing. Achievement = what you know now; aptitude = predicts future learning.

A short list of numbers and thresholds shows up repeatedly across CLEP Introductory Psychology multiple-choice questions.

$-70$mV resting; $7±2$ chunks; 90-min sleep cycle; mean 100/SD 15 IQ; MDD $≥q$2 weeks; $≈$95 questions/90 min.

Precision vocabulary is the fastest, cheapest way to gain or lose points on the exam --- these pairs are the test's favorite traps.

When two terms sound alike, ask: does it ADD or REMOVE (reinforcement/punishment)? Is it a BELIEF or an ACTION (prejudice/discrimination)?

The exam frequently tests matching a named researcher or study directly to the phenomenon it demonstrates --- memorize this list as pairs.

Match the name to the ONE-WORD phenomenon: Pavlov=association, Skinner=consequences, Bandura=imitation, Milgram=obedience, Asch=conformity.

CLEP Introductory Psychology has no case law or required texts, but the exam description names specific competing theory families you must be able to identify and apply to unfamiliar scenarios.

Every ``competing theories'' cluster on the exam wants you to name BOTH sides and know what each one explains.

CLEP MCQs frequently embed a short scenario and ask you to identify the concept it illustrates --- a consistent process turns an unfamiliar vignette into a fast, confident answer.

Subfield first $arrow$ key behavior $arrow$ causal or not $arrow$ direction of paired terms $arrow$ eliminate mismatched-but-true distractors.

Knowing the exact structure of the CLEP Introductory Psychology exam lets you pace and prioritize correctly on test day.

$≈$95 MCQ/90 min, all discrete items, no FRQ; scaled score 20--80; ACE-recommended credit score = 50.

Walking through neural transmission as a sequence (not just a memorized diagram) makes it easy to apply to any unfamiliar drug-effect or lesion scenario the exam gives you.

Resting ($-70$mV) $arrow$ threshold $arrow$ all-or-none firing $arrow$ neurotransmitter release $arrow$ receptor binding $arrow$ reuptake ends it.

When a study description or statistic on the exam feels unfamiliar under time pressure, use this quick-diagnosis checklist instead of panicking.

Random assignment = causation; random sampling = generalization; sign of $r$ = direction only; reliable $≠$ valid.

These statements sound intuitively true but are exactly the kind of overgeneralization the exam is designed to catch --- know why each is wrong.

Before you trust a statement on test day, ask: does this sneak in causation, a permanent change, or a ``good/bad'' label where none belongs?

$≈$95 MCQ, all 13 content categories, id/ego/superego to DSM-5-TR --- if you can explain WHY each pair above is distinct, you're ready.